Nigel Howlett

The Face Before You Were Born

Public

 surface in Nigel Howlett’s monochromatic visions of human complexity.

 takes its title from Howlett’s debut solo show at Ojiri Gallery in London. The book acts as an archive for the seamlessly rendered, faceless figures seen in the show and the captivating processes that underpin them. Unseen sketches, mini-essays and high quality artwork images are brought together across 110 pages in 3 carefully chosen paper stocks.

Foreword and essays by Millie Walton, photography by James Bryant and designed by Punkt, London.

Abject art explores themes that challenge and disrupt our notions of cleanliness and propriety, often involving the body and bodily functions.

The term ‘abjection’ literally means ‘the state of being cast off’. It represents a multifaceted psychological, philosophical, and linguistic concept introduced by Julia Kristeva in her 1980 book Powers of Horror. 

Her ideas were partly influenced by the earlier thoughts of the French writer and surrealist dissident, Georges Bataille. Kristeva herself noted, "refuse and corpses show me what I permanently thrust aside in order to live." In practice, ‘the abject’ encompasses all bodily functions or aspects of the body that society considers impure or unsuitable for public discussion or display.

Abject Art

Art that uses shapes, colours, forms and gestures, rather than discernible figures, to create impact.

To 'abstract' literally means to separate or isolate something from something else, and it's been a central part of modern art since the early 1900s.. This term is used in art to describe works based on objects, figures, or landscapes that have been simplified or stylised, while it's also used for art that uses forms like geometric shapes or expressive marks that have no direct reference to external reality.

Abstract Art

Abstract Expressionism was the dominant art movement in the 1940s and ‘50s, characterised by gestural brushwork and emphasising spontaneity.  

During the 1940s and 1950s, Abstract Expressionism made New York City a major player in modern art. The artists had different styles but shared a commitment to using abstract art to express personal beliefs and important human values. They favoured bold, expressive abstraction, especially in large paintings. Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning were leading figures.

Abstract Expressionism

Action painting is a style where paint is applied spontaneously by dripping, splashing, or smearing onto the canvas instead of meticulous application.

In 1952, art critic Harold Rosenberg introduced the term "action painting" to characterise artists who employed bold, physically engaging gestures, departing from the conventional easel painting. Typically, the viewer can discern broad brushstrokes, drips, splashes, or other indications of the physical involvement in creating the artwork.

The label ‘action painters’ is used for artists active from the 1940s to the early 1960s, emphasising the physical act of painting as an integral aspect of the completed artwork.

Action Painting

Activist art is a label applied to art that tackles political or social concerns.

Activist art refers to creative works made by activists and social movements. It's a way of communication used by various groups and governments to inform and persuade people. Protest art can stir strong emotions and sometimes lead to more tension and chances for dissent. Art is a cost-effective method, so less financially powerful groups can use performance and street art as affordable ways to express their views.

Activist Art

Afrofuturism is a cultural style blending science fiction, history and fantasy to explore the African-American experience.

The term ‘afrofuturism’ was coined by cultural critic Mark Derry in 1993 to describe a creative approach that reimagines Black history, culture, and potential futures by blending science fiction and fantasy. Black artists across various fields, such as music, dance, painting, and literature, employ afrofuturism as a means to rediscover the past, grasp the present and envision a future shaped by their unique perspectives.

Afrofuturism

Airbrushing is a technique that uses compressed air to apply paint as a smooth and uniform surface.

An airbrush is a handheld instrument connected to a canister of compressed air, enabling controlled spraying of paint to achieve an even and consistent surface. This technique is often employed by artists and illustrators to create a high level of realism. Although the airbrush was invented in the late nineteenth century, it gained popularity as a painting tool in the mid-twentieth century.

Pioneers of airbrushing include graphic illustrators George Petty and Alberto Vargas (or Varga) in the 1930s and 1940s. Pop artist James Rosenquist later used the airbrush to evoke advertising qualities, while British artist Barrie Cook became a leading practitioner of airbrushing. In contemporary times, sci-fi artist H.R. Giger is widely associated with the use of airbrushing.

Airbrushing

An Algorithm is a set of instructions used to solve problems, perform specific tasks or make decisions.

With origins in mathematics, algorithms are now a crucial element of coding and Generative Art. Making changes to an algorithms will result in different outputs from a given input. More advanced algorithms use conditional decisions – 'automated reasoning' – to progress from intput to output. Determninistic algorithms will have a more controlled output, however some algorithms incorporate one or more randomised steps and as such have more unpredictable outcomes.

Algorithm

Analytical Cubism refers to the initial stage of Cubism, around 1908-1912, characterised by its fragmented portrayal of people and objects.

Art historians often categorise the groundbreaking explorations of Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and Juan Gris during their cubist phase into two distinct stages. The first phase, from about 1908 to 1912, is known as ‘Analytical Cubism’. 

This term reflects the methodical deconstruction of subjects, disassembling them viewpoint by viewpoint, ultimately creating a fragmented representation with multiple perspectives and overlapping planes. Analytical Cubism is further characterised by a limited colour palette, ensuring that the structure of the form takes centre stage, and a concentration of detail at the centre of the canvas.

Analytical Cubism

Anti-art rejects conventional definitions of art and raises questions about its nature.

Associated with Marcel Duchamp and the Dada movement, Anti-art originated around 1914. Artists like Duchamp rejected established art definitions, producing works outside traditional or popular art. Anti-art, although unconventional, expanded perceptions of what could be considered art. While some completely abandoned traditional forms, others still used them, like painting and sculpture.

Art historians view Anti-art as an umbrella term encompassing various movements that aimed to break with traditional art forms and concepts. The Dada movement is often considered the earliest of these movements, seeking to create art opposing conventional definitions, aligning with the Anti-art ethos. However, Anti-art could also signify the absence of art; for instance, an empty frame might be described as an example of Anti-art.

Anti-Art

Antiquities are objects from the ancient past, usually centred on western civilisations from about 4,500 BCE to the start of the Middle Ages.

Early Antiquity features various forms of art, including advanced pottery and the invention of the potter's wheel, complex religious art like Egyptian pyramid architecture, storytelling through relief sculptures like upright stone or wooden steles, and intricate decorative art such as jewellery, ornate weaponry, mosaics, ivory carving, and pottery painting. During early Antiquity, the primary civilizations were Mesopotamia and Egypt, with additional notable cultures like Ancient Persia, which emerged around 3,500 BCE.

Antiquities

Aquatint is a printing process which creates artworks that resemble watercolour paintings by etching a copper plate with nitric acid and using resin and varnish to achieve tonal shading.

Aquatint is a printmaking technique, similar to etching, but it's used to create tones instead of lines. It's often combined with other intaglio methods. In aquatint, fine particles of acid-resistant material, like powdered rosin, are heated and attached to a printing plate. The plate is then dipped in acid, just like in etching, which eats away the metal around the particles, forming a textured pattern of small indented rings. These rings hold ink and give the illusion of shaded areas when printed. 

You can control the printed areas by using varnish on the plate, and different tones are achieved by varying the time in the acid bath – longer times create darker tones. This technique originated in France in the 1760s and became popular in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. 

Aquatint

Art brut is a French term coined by artist Jean Dubuffet, denoting ‘raw art’ and encompasses creations like graffiti and naïve art.

Jean Dubuffet rejected the dominance of academic training in fine art, which he termed "art culturel" or cultural art. In his view, "art brut," encompassing graffiti and creations by individuals like the mentally ill, prisoners, children, and primitive artists, represented unbridled expressions of vision and emotions, unconstrained by conventional norms. Dubuffet endeavoured to infuse these qualities into his own artwork, a practice sometimes associated with the term art brut.

He amassed a substantial collection of 'art brut' and, in 1948, established the Compagnie de l'Art Brut to foster its exploration. His collection is now housed in La Collection de l'Art Brut museum in Lausanne, Switzerland.

Art Brut

Art Nouveau is a global design style from the 1890s, known for its graceful, flowing lines and organic shapes inspired by natural plant forms.

Art Nouveau is an international artistic movement from the late 19th to early 20th centuries, aimed to unite various art forms and capture the intense sensory experiences of urban life. While it influenced painting and sculpture, its primary expressions were found in design, performance art, and architecture. Different regional variations bore names like Arte Nova, Glasgow Style, Stile Liberty, and Arte Modernista. The well-known version, Art Nouveau (meaning ‘New Art’ in French), thrived in France and Belgium, featuring sinuous and asymmetrical lines inspired by organic shapes.

Art Nouveau

Arte Povera (poor art) was an art movement that began in 1960s Italy that encouraged the use of common materials in sculpture.

In the late 1960s, young Italian artists sought to develop a fresh sculptural style using ordinary materials in a movement known as Arte Povera or ‘poor art’. Coined by Italian critic Germano Celant in 1967, this term encapsulated the work of these artists, as Celant identified a common revolutionary essence in their art, closely tied to the growing radical political climate in Italy. Through the use of basic, temporary materials like soil, cloth, and branches, Arte Povera artists aimed to defy and break free from the commodification of art.

Arte Povera

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a field of computer science and technology that focuses on creating systems and machines capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence. 

These tasks include problem-solving, learning, reasoning, understanding natural language, and recognizing patterns. AI systems use algorithms, data, and computational power to emulate human cognitive functions, enabling them to automate processes, make decisions, and adapt to changing circumstances.

Artificial Intelligence

Appropriation in art involves deliberate borrowing, replicating and modifying of existing images, objects and ideas as an artistic approach.

Appropriation has had a significant impact on the history of the arts – its origins can be traced back to the cubist collages and constructions of artists like Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, starting around 1912. They incorporated real objects like newspapers to represent themselves. This approach was further developed in the readymades of French artist Marcel Duchamp from 1915 – one of the most infamous examples is ‘Fountain’, a men's urinal signed, titled, and presented on a pedestal. 

Surrealism also extensively employed appropriation in collages and objects, exemplified by Salvador Dalí's Lobster Telephone. In the late 1950s, artists like Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg, as well as the pop art movement, prominently featured appropriated images and objects. 

Appropriation art raises questions about originality, authenticity, and authorship, fitting within the broader modernist tradition of art that challenges the nature and definition of art itself.

Artist Appropriation

An AP, or artist's proof, is a copy of an edition that is kept by the artist for their own personal use.

Artist's proofs are generally marked as 'AP' and are sometimes altered or hand-finished by the artist, making them more valuable to collectors. The number of artist's proofs is usually limited and separate from the main edition. They offer a glimpse into the artist's creative process and are often considered more valuable than regular edition prints.

Artist's Proof

An artist's proof, or AP, is a copy of an edition that is kept by the artist for their own personal use.

Tone refers to how dark or light a colour is. Each colour encompasses a wide range of tones that can be changed by adding black or white. 

By extension, tone can also refer to the emotional atmosphere of an artwork – created by colour or other formal elements.

Artistic Tone (AT)

An assemblage is an artistic arrangement of pre-existing elements.

The practice of assemblage in art traces its roots back to Pablo Picasso's cubist constructions, which marked the inception of his three-dimensional works in 1912. One early example is his creation "Still Life" from 1914, composed of various wood scraps and a piece of tablecloth fringe, ingeniously glued together and then painted. Picasso continued to employ assemblage intermittently throughout his artistic journey.

In 1918, the Dada artist Kurt Schwitters pioneered the use of scavenged materials to craft collages and assemblages, coining the term "merz" for this technique. Assemblage also served as the foundation for numerous surrealist artworks. Inspired by the writings of psychologist Sigmund Freud on the realms of the unconscious and dreams, surrealist artists frequently amalgamated improbable combinations of found objects, giving rise to surprising and disconcerting sculptures.

Assemblage

Auto-destructive art, coined by Gustav Metzger in the 1960s, describes radical artworks where destruction is an integral part of the creation process.

Auto-Destructive Art (ADA), deeply influenced by World War II, emerged as a response to the widespread devastation and loss caused by the conflict. Unlike World War I, this war introduced new elements like aircraft and nuclear weapons, which inspired artists to explore novel techniques involving corrosion, stress, and heat. ADA aimed to represent the war's impact and casualties, prompting artists to approach societal issues differently. To delve into these matters within an industrialised society, Metzger encouraged collaboration between artists, scientists, and engineers.

Auto-Destructive Art

Automatism involves crafting artwork without deliberate thought, tapping into the reservoir of the unconscious mind.

The term ‘automatism’ is adopted from physiology, where it denotes bodily actions that occur without conscious control, such as breathing or sleepwalking. Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud employed techniques like free association and automatic drawing or writing to delve into the unconscious thoughts of his patients.

Automatism

An autonomous system is a system that uses a non-human decision maker.

Autonomous systems have been used by humans for centuries to relinquish control, with systems of logic ranging from simple games to unfathomably complex algorithms. In the context of Generative Art, an autonomous is usually a non-human entity such as a computer program or machine. Here, the artist allows this entity to guide the final outcome – or artwork – in ways they cannot fully anticipate. Many of the results can be found on the blockchain.

Autonomous System

Avant-garde in art refers to new and experimental ideas and methods.

In the arts and literature, the avant-garde refers to a genre of art and experimental artists who create innovative and often ideologically challenging works, initially rejected by the artistic establishment of their era.

Movements such as Cubism, Fauvism, Dadaism, Expressionism, Surrealism, and more were all deemed radical during their respective periods, making them clear examples of avant-garde art.

Avant Garde

Bauhaus was a groundbreaking institution for art, architecture, and design, founded in 1919 by Walter Gropius in Weimar, Germany.

The Bauhaus teaching approach replaced the traditional teacher-student dynamic with a collaborative community of artists. Its goal was to reconnect art with everyday life, giving equal importance to architecture, performing arts, design, and applied arts alongside fine art. 

The name ‘Bauhaus’ combines the German words for ‘building’ (bau) and ‘house’ (haus), perhaps suggesting a collective effort to construct a new society. Prominent teachers included Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee, László Moholy-Nagy, and Josef Albers.

Bauhaus

The Ben Day process is a method in printing that creates shades of grey or different colours by using intricate ink patterns on paper.

A low-cost mechanical printing technique, developed in the late 19th century and named after its creator, illustrator and printer Benjamin Henry Day, Jr., employs small coloured dots (usually cyan, magenta, yellow, and black) placed at different intervals and blended to produce shading and various colours in images.

Ben-Day Dots

A biennial is a significant international art exhibition that takes place every two years.

Biennials are international platforms for contemporary art that occur every two years and are widely regarded as the most prominent -ennial events. In the globalised realm of contemporary art, more than 100 biennials in cities like São Paulo, Istanbul, Moscow, and Sydney vie for renowned curators and established artists. These events have evolved into sources of local pride, tourism, cultural influence, and revenue for the host cities.

The inaugural biennial event was the Venice Biennale in 1895, initially located in the Giardini, a public park. Today, the Giardini hosts thirty permanent national pavilions and numerous temporary structures. While European art initially dominated the early years, the exhibition has evolved to encompass contributions from countries across South America, Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.

Biennial

Biomorphic art, from 'bios' (life) and 'morphe' (form), relates to abstract shapes or images that resemble naturally occurring forms, such as body parts.

Despite its scientific sound, the term was initially used to describe biomorphic art in the context of the Cubism and Abstract Art exhibition of 1936 at MoMA.

Biomorphic

Biomorphism comes from the Greek ‘bios’ (life) and ‘morphe’ (form), describing abstract shapes or images that remind people of living things. 

Biomorphism is an artistic design approach that draws inspiration from patterns and forms found in the natural world and living organisms. It involves emulating these organic elements to create aesthetically pleasing and harmonious designs. At its most radical, biomorphism seeks to integrate these naturally occurring shapes into functional objects or devices, seamlessly blending art and functionality. This design philosophy celebrates the beauty and efficiency of nature's own creations.

Biomorphism

The Black Arts Movement was an art movement led by African Americans, active in the 1960s and 1970s.

The Black Arts Movement, initiated by African American artists and thinkers in the 1960s and 1970s in the United States, emerged during a period when Black people worldwide were striving for freedom and equality. This movement aimed to empower Black individuals by focusing on cultural creations such as literature, theatre, and visual arts deeply rooted in Black history and identity. 

The art produced was designed for Black audiences and was intended to be readily available, both in terms of its subject matter and its accessibility through public murals and affordable prints.

Black Arts Movement

The blockchain is a distributed and decentralised digital ledger that securely records transactions across a network of computers.

It was originally developed as the underlying technology for cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum. In a blockchain, each transaction is verified and added to a chain of blocks, forming a transparent and tamper-resistant ledger. Blockchain technology has since found applications beyond cryptocurrencies, including supply chain management, voting systems and digital identity verification.

Blockchain

Body art is a form of art where the primary medium and focus is the human body, often that of the artist.

Body art is art that involves the human body in various forms. It includes things like tattoos, body piercings, scarification, and body painting. Body art can also be part of performance art, and it's used for exploring the body through different media like painting, casting, photography, film, and video. Some forms of body art can be quite extreme and may involve physical alterations or pushing the body to its limits.

Body Art

A caricature is a picture, description, or imitation of a person in which specific features are exaggerated, often for humorous or grotesque effect.

The term ‘caricature’ originates from the Italian word 'caricatura,' and it emerged in Italian art around 1600, notably in the work of Annibale Carracci. The term ‘caricature’ was first documented in English in 1748, the same year when William Hogarth created his notable anti-French satire 'O the Roast Beef of Old England,' featuring caricatures of a French monk and soldiers. Hogarth's use of caricature became influential in Britain, especially in political cartooning.

In the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, James Gillray and Thomas Rowlandson showcased genius in the practice of caricature, particularly in political and social commentary. Caricature continued to be a prominent form of expression, with figures like Max Beerbohm excelling in the nineteenth century, and Gerald Scarfe standing out as one of the most powerful contemporary caricaturists.

Caricature

A certificate of authenticity (COA) is a document that accompanies a piece of artwork to verify its authenticity.

The COA is typically issued by the artist, the gallery, or the publisher and includes details like the edition number, the size of the edition, and the materials used. It serves as a guarantee of the work's authenticity and can be important for valuation and resale. A COA provides collectors with the assurance they need when investing in a piece of art, adding credibility and value to the artwork.

Certificate of Authenticity

Charcoal is a black drawing material made of carbon, commonly used for sketching, under-drawing in paintings, and creating finished drawings.

Charcoal is typically created by heating thin willow twigs without oxygen, resulting in black, crumbly sticks. When applied to paper or fabric, it leaves a line that's denser at the pressure point and softer at the edges. 

This makes charcoal suitable for more expressive and freeform studies, although it smudges easily and is often preserved with a fixative spray. In the twentieth century, a refined form known as compressed charcoal was developed.

Charcoal Drawing

Chicano Art is a movement by Mexican-American artists to create a distinct artistic identity within the United States.

Chicano art, traditionally made by Americans of Mexican descent, is strongly influenced by the Chicano Movement in the United States, which was part of the countercultural revolution in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Artists in this movement aimed to establish a collective identity that was positive, self-determined, and challenged racial stereotypes. Many of these artists drew inspiration from Mexican muralism and pre-Columbian art.

In 1990, a significant travelling exhibition called "Chicano Art: Resistance and Affirmation" opened at Wight Gallery at the University of California, Los Angeles. According to the exhibition's advisory committee, Chicano art is a modern expression of the Mexicano people's enduring cultural, economic, and political struggle in the United States. It affirms the complex identity and vitality of the Chicano people, shaped by their experiences in the Americas.

At the heart of this movement is the idea of "rasquachismo," which comes from the Spanish word "rasquache," meaning poor. It signifies a resourceful and improvisational attitude, often involving the use of readily available materials, drawing on community resources, or even incorporating elements from other art movements or postmodern theories.

Chicano Art

Classicism is the designation for art that draws inspiration from the styles of ancient Greece and Rome.

Classicism, in its broadest sense, refers to the artistic style that imitates the classical art of ancient Rome and Greece. It has its roots in ancient times but has had various revivals in history, especially during the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.

Neoclassicism, on the other hand, specifically denotes a period in the late 18th to early 19th century when artists worldwide aimed to rekindle the classical style of Roman and Greek art. It was a distinct era within the broader continuum of classicism.

In summary, classicism has been a recurring artistic style, with neoclassicism being one of its notable revivals, particularly in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

Classicism

A  COA (certificate of authenticity) is a document that accompanies a piece of artwork to verify its authenticity.

A collagraph is a collage of materials with different textures adhered to a printing plate, typically made of thin wood or cardboard.

Collagraphy, a printmaking technique pioneered by Glen Alps in 1955, involves the application of various materials onto a sturdy base surface. The term ‘collagraphy’ derives its origins from the Greek words ‘koll’ or ‘kolla’, signifying glue, and ‘graph’, referring to the act of drawing.

In this method, artists create unique textures and patterns by affixing an assortment of materials, such as paper, fabric, string, or even found objects, to a rigid substrate like wood or cardboard. The result is a highly textured printing plate that, when inked and pressed onto paper, produces prints with rich, intricate surfaces that showcase the tactile qualities of the materials used. Collagraphy allows artists to explore a wide range of creative possibilities, making it a versatile and expressive form of printmaking.

Collagraph

An art commission is when an individual or institution requests that an artist make an artwork especially for them.

In art, a commission refers to the formal act of requesting the creation of a specific piece, usually done on behalf of another party. This practice extends across various domains, including private individuals, governmental bodies, and businesses. These types of commissions bear similarities to endorsements or sponsorships, as they involve a deliberate arrangement where an artist is entrusted with the task of crafting a work to meet particular specifications or desires. This collaborative process allows for the realisation of customised and bespoke artworks that cater to the unique visions and preferences of the commissioning party.

Commission

In art, composition is the organisation and arrangement of different visual elements within an artwork.

Composition involves the organisation of visual elements within an artwork. These elements are arranged to create a specific composition, allowing artists to convey emotions, stories, or meaning through their arrangement. While there are no strict rules for composition, artists often use principles to craft compositions that express their intended message or impact.

Composition in Art

Conceptual art emerged in the late 1960s, prioritising the idea or concept behind the piece over the actual art object.

Conceptual art, or conceptualism, was formed in the late 1960s, and focused on ideas (i.e. concepts) and theories more than making visual works. In 1967, artist Sol LeWitt named this new type of art ‘conceptual art’ in his essay ‘Paragraphs on Conceptual Art’. He said, "The idea itself, even if not shown visually, is just as much art as any finished thing." Conceptual artists used their art to challenge the idea of what art is, and to criticise the ideas behind how art is made, shared, and shown.

Conceptual Art

Conceptualism is an art movement that emerged in the mid-20th century, emphasizing the idea or concept behind an artwork rather than its visual or aesthetic qualities.

In conceptual art, the concept or the thought process is considered more important than the final physical form of the artwork. Artists often use various mediums, including text, photographs, and installations, to convey their ideas, challenging traditional notions of art and aesthetics.

Conceptualism

Ironically, concrete art is a form of abstract art that has no connection to observed reality or any symbolic meaning.

The term was coined by artist Theo van Doesburg in his 1930 Manifesto of Concrete Art, which he published in the first issue of the magazine Art Concret. He argued that there's nothing more concrete or real than a line, a colour, or a flat area of colour (plane).

Swiss artist Max Bill championed concrete art and organised the first international exhibition in Basel in 1944. According to Bill, the goal of concrete art is to visually and tangibly represent abstract ideas by creating things that didn't exist before.

Concrete Art

Contemporary art describes art that pertains to the current era.

At its core, contemporary art includes various art forms like painting, sculpture, photography, installation, performance, and video art created in the current timeframe. However, pinpointing its precise beginning can be somewhat vague, as people's interpretations of ‘today’ vary significantly. So, the exact inception of this genre remains a subject of debate. Nevertheless, many art historians find the late 1960s or early 1970s (marking the conclusion of modern art or modernism) to be a reasonable approximation.

Contemporary Art

In art, contour lines outline the edges of an object, emphasising the shape's boundaries and significant internal lines.

A contour is the line outlining a shape or form, like an outline. Contour drawing is often where beginners begin, following the visible edges of an object. It traces the outer edges of a form and any significant changes in its planes. In simple terms, it's a drawing that consists only of outlines without shading.

In contour drawing, the artist focuses on observing the object's edges without frequently looking at the paper while drawing. The aim is to create a line that accurately represents what is seen and trains the hand to follow the eye's movements.

Contour Line

Developed by the Ancient Greeks, Contrapposto , an Italian term meaning counterpoise, is used in the visual arts to describe a human figure standing with the majority of its weight on one foot. This posture causes the shoulders and arms to twist away from the hips and legs in the axial plane.

Contrapposto

Craft is a creative process that typically results in something that serves a practical purpose, like clothing or utensils.

In the past, crafts were often considered inferior to traditional art forms like painting and sculpture due to their utilitarian nature, and they were predominantly associated with women, which contributed to their lower status.

In the mid-1800s, William Morris challenged the distinctions between art and craft by infusing artistic aesthetics into craft objects, as seen in his wallpaper designs.

Throughout the 20th century, the lines between art and craft began to blur, especially at institutions like the Bauhaus, where artists explored craft techniques in their art. Artists like Sonia Delaunay experimented with textiles to create geometric abstract pieces, while Ai Weiwei used traditional crafting methods in his work, ‘Sunflower Seeds’ (2010), to convey a political message. Today, contemporary artists like Grayson Perry and Tracey Emin continue to employ craft techniques in their creations.

Craft

Creolisation started in the Caribbean, and refers to the blending of diverse peoples, languages, and cultures.

Derived from the term 'creole,' which historically referred to individuals born in the New World as opposed to African-born slaves, the concept of creolisation gained prominence during the Second World War. Scholars, including Martinique poet and politician Aimé Césaire, explored the complexities of Caribbean life, addressing cultural identity issues for black Africans within a colonial context. 

Creolisation, in this context, can be connected to the concept of Négritude. Presently, the term 'creolisation' is sometimes employed to characterise the cultural intricacies of our contemporary world and the diverse societies that inhabit it.

Creolisation

Cubism was a revolutionary art style and movement, invented by Picasso and Braque in 1907-08, that brought different viewpoints into the same picture.

The term ‘cubism’ was coined by the critic Louis Vauxcelles, who described Georges Braque's paintings displayed in Paris in 1908, as “reducing everything to geometric outlines, to cubes.”

Cubism itself was introduced by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque in the early 20th century, marking a groundbreaking shift in representing reality. As one of the most influential 20th-century art styles, it’s widely recognized to have originated around 1907, notably in Picasso's renowned work ‘Demoiselles D'Avignon’, which exhibited early cubist elements. 

In Cubism, conventional subjects like nudes, landscapes, and still lifes underwent a transformation into progressively fragmented compositions. The impact of Cubism reached across a global community of artists working in Paris during that era and continued to influence art beyond those years.

Cubism

A curator is an individual hired by a museum or gallery to oversee and care for a collection of artworks or artefacts.

Museums and galleries typically employ multiple curators responsible for acquiring, maintaining, and enhancing their collections. These curators also organise exhibitions featuring both items from the collection and loaned works, with the aim of enlightening, educating, and inspiring the public.

Over the last two decades, the role of a curator has undergone significant changes. There are now freelance or independent curators who operate without institutional affiliations and bring their unique, unconventional methods to exhibition curation. These curators are invited to curate exhibitions or propose their own ideas for a variety of venues, spanning from traditional gallery spaces to unconventional settings and even online platforms.

Swiss curator Harald Szeemann, who served as the director of the Venice Biennale in 1999 and 2001, stands as a prominent example of an independent curator. Similarly, the artist and curator Matthew Higgs is recognized for his budget-friendly, do-it-yourself exhibitions, such as the unconventional art exhibition ‘Imprint’, which was distributed to people rather than being displayed in a traditional gallery space.

Curator

Dada was an artistic movement formed during WWI in Zurich, in response to the war’s horrific scenes. The art was often satirical and nonsensical.

Dada emerged as a response to the horrors of World War I (1914–18) and the rise of modern media and machinery. In both art and literature, Dadaism aimed to unveil established and often oppressive norms of order and rationality. 

Founded by writer, Hugo Ball, Dada embraced methods characterised by chance, spontaneity, and irreverence, venturing into diverse mediums, from collage and photomontage to ordinary objects and performance, shattering conventional notions of art creation and appreciation, and redefining the boundaries of permissible materials.

Dada

Decadence describes an extravagant form of symbolism that emerged in the late nineteenth century, focussing on spiritual, morbid and erotic themes.

The term 'Decadence' gained popularity in the 1880s, as exemplified by the publication of the French journal Le Décadent in 1886. Decadents were motivated partly by a revulsion toward the corruption and pervasive materialism of the modern world, and partly by a corresponding desire to transcend it through exploration of the aesthetic, fantastical, erotic, or religious realms.

In the realm of art, Decadence left a notable impact on the works of artists such as Dante Gabriel Rossetti and later Edward Coley Burne-Jones in Britain, as well as Aubrey Beardsley and Simeon Solomon. Other artists working within the decadent style included Khnopff, Moreau, and Rops. Key literary works associated with Decadence include Joris-Karl Huysmans' 'À Rebours' (Against Nature) and Oscar Wilde's 'The Picture of Dorian Gray.'

Decadence 

Décollage (to unstick) is linked to the artistic method of nouveau réalisme (new realism) artists, who created art by tearing posters from walls.

Décollage in art is the opposite of collage, as it involves creating an image by cutting, tearing, or removing pieces from an original image, as opposed to building an image from existing ones. The French term décollage translates to ‘take-off’ or ‘to become unglued’. Décollage techniques include etrécissements and the cut-up method, similar to the lacerated poster where multiple posters are layered, and the top layers are torn to reveal the ones beneath.

While the term décollage first appeared in print in the 1938 Dictionnaire Abrégé du Surréalisme, it is most commonly associated with nouveau réalisme. Artists like Raymond Hains often deliberately selected locations with numerous layers of posters, transforming décollage into an archaeological process aimed at revealing historical insights. They displayed these torn poster creations as both artistic pieces and social records. Starting in 1949, Hains began crafting art by tearing posters from the walls of Paris.

Décollage

A diaspora is a community of people from a country or ethnic group who have migrated to another part of the world.

These artists often bring their cultural and personal experiences with them, which can significantly influence their artistic work. Diaspora artists may explore themes related to identity, displacement, and the blending of different cultural influences in their art. Their work can provide unique perspectives and contribute to a broader understanding of the complexities of cultural diversity and migration.

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