Name: Free Speech
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Ai Weiwei

Free Speech

Public

 belongs to a trio of artworks by Ai Weiwei which combine innovative printing methods with pillars of freedom upheld throughout his practice.

 encompasses rife global friction between free expression and censorship. Birds with open beaks – a nod to Twitter – hover above a symmetrical arrangement of razor wire, printed in 11 distinct layers on a 

 press. Glossy, vibrant colours contrast a matte black underprint, while a series of varnish highlights and phosphorescent details anoint the composition with depth and drama.

Stylistically, the work is an ode to papercut artworks made by the artist’s father – a renowned poet persecuted by the Chinese government – during his childhood. Ai's interest in paper cutting also stems from its historic status as a domestic pursuit, rather than a viable artistic medium. 

Go behind the scenes at Make-Ready in London as Ai reflects on the profundities of printmaking, and its lineage within his practice.

Due to trade, the 17th century saw significant exchanges of artistic objects and the worldwide dissemination of artistic styles.

This was made possible through the involvement of British and Dutch trading companies in South Asia, the trade routes established by the Ottoman Empire, and the administration of South America by the Spanish, among other channels. During this period, China, Japan, and Korea all witnessed significant economic growth and artistic achievements. While Chinese goods were widely traded in the global market, Japan maintained a closed economy.

In Europe during the 17th century, there was a diverse range of artistic production, often loosely categorised as "Baroque." This term generally refers to art characterised by a heightened sense of movement and lighting in compositions. Caravaggio is credited with mastering these elements, influencing artists across Europe, including Diego Velázquez in Spain and Rembrandt in Holland.

17th-Century Arts

The 1960s birthed important art styles and movements, including Pop Art, Op Art, Minimalism, Conceptual Art, Performance Art, and Feminist Art.

Artists from the 1960s played a vital role in shaping new aesthetic styles and movements during one of the most influential cultural periods of the 20th century. Amid growing criticisms of the educational system, the era saw student protests and the rise of the hippie movement, alongside artistic movements striving for change. 

Pop art, in particular, represented a departure from traditional high culture, reflecting a new way of life. In the realm of visual art, styles like Psychedelic art, Pop art, Minimalism, and Conceptual art emerged as the most significant and transformative ideas of that time.

1960s Art

1980s art was marked by a wide range of artistic styles, including neo-expressionism, abstract paintings, and installation and performance artists.

In the 1980s, there was a departure from the minimalistic and intellectual art of the previous decade. Instead, artists explored various forms like painting, photography, graffiti, and sculpture. The era also saw a rise in conservative values as a reaction to the radical counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s. The booming economy led to a revived art market, bringing Neo-Expressionist painting, notably by artists like Julian Schnabel and Anselm Kiefer, into the spotlight in New York City, Italy, and Germany.

1980s Art

20th century art embraced the new era by departing from realistic representation and traditional ideas, leading to various abstract styles.

In the 20th century, the art world embarked on a journey that fully embraced the novelty and dynamism of a rapidly changing era. This period saw a resounding rejection of conventional notions of realistic representation and traditional aesthetic norms. Instead, it gave rise to a multitude of innovative styles within the realm of Abstract Expressionism, among which Cubism emerged as the most prominent and profoundly influential.

Cubism, in particular, revolutionised the way artists perceived and represented the world around them. Pioneered by figures like Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, this avant-garde movement shattered the boundaries of traditional artistic expression. It deconstructed objects and forms into geometric shapes and facets, presenting a multifaceted view of reality. Through the dissection of subjects into a kaleidoscope of angles and viewpoints, Cubism challenged viewers to engage with art in a wholly novel and intellectually stimulating manner.

The impact of Cubism extended far beyond the canvas, influencing not only the visual arts but also architecture, literature, and even the way society viewed the world. It marked a pivotal moment in the evolution of artistic thought, setting the stage for the diverse and ever-evolving artistic landscape of the 20th century. Cubism's legacy endures as a testament to the boundless potential of human creativity and the transformative power of art to capture the essence of an era in flux.

20th century art

Abject art explores themes that challenge and disrupt our notions of cleanliness and propriety, often involving the body and bodily functions.

The term ‘abjection’ literally means ‘the state of being cast off’. It represents a multifaceted psychological, philosophical, and linguistic concept introduced by Julia Kristeva in her 1980 book Powers of Horror. 

Her ideas were partly influenced by the earlier thoughts of the French writer and surrealist dissident, Georges Bataille. Kristeva herself noted, "refuse and corpses show me what I permanently thrust aside in order to live." In practice, ‘the abject’ encompasses all bodily functions or aspects of the body that society considers impure or unsuitable for public discussion or display.

Abject Art

Abstract art doesn't try to show things as they appear in reality – it uses shapes, colours, forms, and gestures to create its impact.

Abstract literally means to separate or isolate something from something else, and it's been a central part of modern art since the early 1900s.. This term is used in art to describe works based on objects, figures, or landscapes that have been simplified or stylised, while it's also used for art that uses forms like geometric shapes or expressive marks that have no direct reference to external reality. Some artists who work in this 'pure' abstract style may use terms like concrete art or non-objective art, but in practice, abstract is the commonly used term, and the distinction between the two isn't always clear.

Abstract Art

Abstract Expressionism was the dominant art movement in the 1940s and ‘50s, characterised by gestural brushwork and emphasising spontaneity.  

During the 1940s and 1950s, Abstract Expressionism made New York City a major player in modern art. The artists had different styles but shared a commitment to using abstract art to express personal beliefs and important human values. They favoured bold, expressive abstraction, especially in large paintings. Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning were leading figures.

Abstract Expressionism

Abstract illusionism is commonly associated with the decorative designs found in Baroque art, particularly in building ornamentation.

The works were mainly influenced by expressionistic and hard-edge abstract painting styles. They also incorporated elements like perspective, artificial lighting, and fake cast shadows to create the impression of 3D space on a flat surface. Abstract illusionism was distinct from traditional Trompe-l'œil (fool the eye) art because it made the picture space appear to come out of or extend away from the canvas, rather than receding into it as in traditional painting.

Abstract Illusionism

Abstract landscapes draw inspiration from the real world but purposefully diverge from it, prioritising shapes over literal representations.

Abstract landscape paintings deliberately depart from reality, making them intriguing for both artists and viewers. Artists have the liberty to employ unconventional colour schemes, amplify shapes, and use details and textures to convey a wide range of emotions and ideas. Two of the most famous abstract expressionists include Jackson Pollock and Helen Frankenthaler.

Abstract Landscape

Abstract photography involves creating images using photographic materials and equipment that lack a direct connection to the physical world.

Abstract photography, also known as non-objective, experimental, or conceptual photography, is a method of portraying visual images that lack an immediate connection to the physical world and are produced using photographic equipment, processes, or materials.

Abstract Photography

Abstract sculpture involves crafting a shape or form using a combination of lines or a simple shape, without the use of colour.

In the early 20th century, avant-garde sculptors moved away from realistic representation to explore abstraction. They aimed to express life's realities through forms rather than replicating the visible world. Abstract sculpture became a fertile ground for experimenting with shape, proportion, and techniques, including unconventional methods like industrial manufacturing, plastic moulds, and 3D printing. Modern abstract sculpture includes Concrete Art's precise forms, Minimalist sculptures with strict geometry, and Kinetic Sculpture embodying movement and physical forces.

Abstract Sculpture

Acrylic paint is a quick-drying paint composed of pigment suspended in an acrylic polymer emulsion. 

Acrylic paint, first developed in the 1950s, employs a synthetic resin to bind pigments. Its adaptability shines through in its ability to be thinned with water, allowing for both thin and thick applications, mimicking the qualities of watercolour or oil painting, or manifesting unique characteristics not found in other mediums. Once dry, acrylic paint becomes waterproof.

Thanks to its versatility and rapid drying time, acrylic paint has gained immense popularity as a painting medium, widely embraced by contemporary artists. Notably, artist David Hockney was an early advocate of acrylic paint, using it to create some of his most iconic works during the 1960s.

An important distinction between acrylic paint and oil paint lies in their bases: acrylics are water-based, while oils are oil-based.

Acrylic Paint

Action painting is a style where paint is applied spontaneously by dripping, splashing, or smearing onto the canvas instead of meticulous application.

In 1952, art critic Harold Rosenberg introduced the term "action painting" to characterise artists who employed bold, physically engaging gestures, departing from the conventional easel painting. Typically, the viewer can discern broad brushstrokes, drips, splashes, or other indications of the physical involvement in creating the artwork.

The label ‘action painters’ is used for artists active from the 1940s to the early 1960s, emphasising the physical act of painting as an integral aspect of the completed artwork.

Action Painting

Activist art is a label applied to art that focuses on action and tackles political or social concerns.

Activist art refers to creative works made by activists and social movements. It's a way of communication used by various groups and governments to inform and persuade people. Protest art can stir strong emotions and sometimes lead to more tension and chances for dissent. Art is a cost-effective method, so less financially powerful groups can use performance and street art as affordable ways to express their views.

Activist Art

African art includes paintings, sculptures, installations, and various forms of visual culture produced by native or indigenous Africans on the African continent.

African art encompasses the diverse and rich visual expressions originating from native Africa, with a primary focus on sub-Saharan Africa. This multifaceted artistry includes a wide array of media, such as sculpture, painting, pottery, rock art, textiles, masks, personal adornments, and jewellery. These forms of artistic expression not only serve as a reflection of Africa's vibrant cultural heritage but also encapsulate the intricate stories, traditions, and beliefs of the diverse communities across the continent. African art is celebrated for its profound connection to spirituality, history, and everyday life, making it a captivating and vital part of the global artistic landscape.

African art

AfriCOBRA was a collective of African American artists in Chicago, who aimed to uplift and empower black communities.

AfriCOBRA held a philosophical mission centred on creating powerful visual representations of the African diaspora, aiming for these images to resonate with all black people. Their vision was to foster unity within the African Diaspora, transcending the Western concept of self in favour of community progress. The founding members sought to pay homage to the past, provide context to the present, and envision a promising future. With this objective in mind, they formulated a mission statement and guiding principles, articulated in a manifesto written by Jeff Donaldson. 

The artists believed that, through collective awareness, their art and creations could drive social and political transformation within their communities. AfriCOBRA's aesthetic principles revolved around the use of "vibrant colours, depictions of the human figure, distinctive lines, lettering, and imagery reflecting the social, economic, and political conditions of their ethnic group." Their intention was to embrace the "specific visual qualities inherent to their ethnic heritage."

AfriCOBRA

Afrofuturism is a cultural style blending science fiction, history, and fantasy to delve into the African-American experience.

The term ‘afrofuturism’, initially introduced by cultural critic Mark Derry in 1993, describes a creative approach that reimagines Black history, culture, and potential futures by blending science fiction and fantasy. Black artists across various fields, such as music, dance, painting, and literature, employ afrofuturism as a means to rediscover the past, grasp the present, and envision a future shaped by their unique perspectives.

Afrofuturism

Airbrushing is a painting technique that uses an airbrush to achieve a smooth and uniform surface, used to create highly-realistic artworks.

An airbrush is a handheld instrument connected to a canister of compressed air, enabling controlled spraying of paint to achieve an even and consistent surface. This technique is often employed by artists and illustrators to create a high level of realism. Although the airbrush was invented in the late nineteenth century, it gained popularity as a painting tool in the mid-twentieth century.

Pioneers of airbrushing include graphic illustrators George Petty and Alberto Vargas (or Varga) in the 1930s and 1940s. Pop artist James Rosenquist later used the airbrush to evoke advertising qualities, while British artist Barrie Cook became a leading practitioner of airbrushing. In contemporary times, sci-fi artist H.R. Giger is widely associated with the use of airbrushing.

Airbrushing

Alabaster is a soft white, mineral rock used for carvings and a source of plaster powder.

Alabaster, a natural stone prized for its unique qualities, is primarily found in desert regions such as Italy, England, Mexico, and the United States of America. It is a rare crystallisation of gypsum, imparting a distinctive texture and translucency.

The stone's singular features, including brown watercolour lines, are attributed to the presence of iron oxide. The translucency of alabaster varies with the temperature at which it is heated; when immersed in high-temperature water, it can become as opaque as marble.

Alabaster's softness allows for easy carving into intricate forms, making it a popular material for sculptures. Additionally, it is often used for ornamental stonework, though its solubility in water makes it unsuitable for outdoor applications.

Alabaster

The albumen print, widely used in the late 19th century, is a photographic print crafted from paper coated with albumin from egg whites.

The albumen print gained popularity due to its ability to produce sharp and vibrant images. This photographic process entails coating paper with albumen (egg white), creating a glossy and smooth surface. Subsequently, the paper is treated with a solution of silver nitrate, resulting in the formation of light-sensitive silver salts on the paper. When a glass negative is placed directly on the paper and exposed to light, it forms an image on the surface.

Albumen Print

An Algorithm is a set of instructions used to solve problems, perform specific tasks or make decisions.

With origins in mathematics, algorithms are now a crucial element of coding and Generative Art. Making changes to an algorithms will result in different outputs from a given input. More advanced algorithms use conditional decisions – 'automated reasoning' – to progress from intput to output. Determninistic algorithms will have a more controlled output, however some algorithms incorporate one or more randomised steps and as such have more unpredictable outcomes.

Algorithm

In allegorical paintings, figures may symbolise various emotional states or personify abstract concepts like love, envy, or Revolution.

An allegory is a representation of one subject using the guise of another. It has a long history in all art forms, primarily due to its potent ability to convey intricate ideas and concepts in a straightforward and tangible manner to viewers, readers, or listeners.

In the context of contemporary art, allegory occurs when one narrative can symbolise another, a concept initially introduced in Craig Owens' book, ‘The Allegorical Impulse: Toward a Theory of Postmodernism’. An instance of this allegorical usage can be seen in Sarah Lucas's artwork ‘Two Fried Eggs and a Kebab’ from 1992, where food signifies aspects of sexual politics. Owens asserts that artists employing allegory reveal how objects can carry not just one, but multiple meanings.

Allegory Painting

‘Altermodern’ was coined by Nicolas Bourriaud, seeking to place contemporary art within today's context as a response to commercialisation.

The term Altermodern was coined by Nicolas Bourriaud during the Tate Triennial in 2009. It opposes cultural standardisation, massification, nationalism, and cultural relativism. Instead, it positions artists within global cultural gaps. Key principles of Altermodern art include cultural translation, mental exploration, and crossing different formats.

In Altermodern, time is seen as a multiplicity, not a linear progression. Artists navigate various historical periods and global time zones, creating connections between distant signs. Altermodern is "docufiction," blending elements of fiction and documentary to explore the past and present, forming new paths.

Altermodern

American Abstract Artists (AAA) is an organisation established in 1936 with the aim of fostering the appreciation of abstract art in the US.

American Abstract Artists (AAA) was established in 1936 in New York City with the primary goal of promoting and enhancing public appreciation and understanding of abstract art. The organisation achieved this through exhibitions, publications, and lectures, making it a significant platform for the exchange of ideas and the presentation of abstract art to a wider audience. 

American Abstract Artists played a vital role in advancing and legitimising abstract art in the United States and has a historical significance within the avant-garde art movement. Remarkably, it is one of the few artists' organisations that emerged during the Great Depression and has persisted into the 21st century.

American Abstract Artists (AAA)

Analytical Cubism, typically spanning from 1908 to 1912, refers to the initial stage of Cubism, characterised by its fragmented portrayal of subjects.

Art historians often categorise the groundbreaking explorations of Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and Juan Gris during their cubist phase into two distinct stages. The first phase, from about 1908 to 1912, is known as ‘Analytical Cubism’. 

This term reflects the methodical deconstruction of subjects, disassembling them viewpoint by viewpoint, ultimately creating a fragmented representation with multiple perspectives and overlapping planes. Analytical Cubism is further characterised by a limited colour palette, ensuring that the structure of the form takes centre stage, and a concentration of detail at the centre of the canvas.

Analytical Cubism

‘Angry Penguins’ was a modernist literary and artistic movement in Australia during the 1940s, aiming to challenge cultural norms.

‘Angry Penguins’ was an art and literary journal established in 1940 by surrealist poet Max Harris when he was just 18 years old. Initially located in Adelaide, the journal relocated to Melbourne in 1942 after Harris joined the Heide Circle. The Heide Circle was a collective of avant-garde painters and writers associated with Heide, a property owned by art patrons John and Sunday Reed. 

Over time, ‘Angry Penguins’ became closely linked to, and played a role in nurturing, an art movement that later adopted the same name. Prominent figures within this movement included Sidney Nolan, Arthur Boyd, Joy Hester, Gray Smith, and Albert Tucker.

Angry Penguins

‘Anti-art’ is a term used to include various concepts and attitudes that reject conventional definitions of art and raise questions about its nature.

Associated with Marcel Duchamp and the Dada movement, Anti-art originated around 1914. Artists like Duchamp rejected established art definitions, producing works outside traditional or popular art. Anti-art, although unconventional, expanded perceptions of what could be considered art. While some completely abandoned traditional forms, others still used them, like painting and sculpture.

Art historians view Anti-art as an umbrella term encompassing various movements that aimed to break with traditional art forms and concepts. The Dada movement is often considered the earliest of these movements, seeking to create art opposing conventional definitions, aligning with the Anti-art ethos. However, Anti-art could also signify the absence of art; for instance, an empty frame might be described as an example of Anti-art.

Anti-Art

Antiquity refers to the ancient past, from approx 4,500 BCE, marking the origins of Western civilization, to around the start of the Middle Ages.

Early Antiquity features various forms of art, including advanced pottery and the invention of the potter's wheel, complex religious art like Egyptian pyramid architecture, storytelling through relief sculptures like upright stone or wooden steles, and intricate decorative art such as jewellery, ornate weaponry, mosaics, ivory carving, and pottery painting. During early Antiquity, the primary civilizations were Mesopotamia and Egypt, with additional notable cultures like Ancient Persia, which emerged around 3,500 BCE.

Antiquities

Aquatint is a print resembling a watercolour painting, etching a copper plate with nitric acid and using resin and varnish to achieve tonal shading.

Aquatint is a printmaking technique, similar to etching, but it's used to create tones instead of lines. It's often combined with other intaglio methods. In aquatint, fine particles of acid-resistant material, like powdered rosin, are heated and attached to a printing plate. The plate is then dipped in acid, just like in etching, which eats away the metal around the particles, forming a textured pattern of small indented rings. These rings hold ink and give the illusion of shaded areas when printed. 

You can control the printed areas by using varnish on the plate, and different tones are achieved by varying the time in the acid bath – longer times create darker tones. This technique originated in France in the 1760s and became popular in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. 

Aquatint

‘Art brut’ is a French term coined by artist Jean Dubuffet, denoting ‘raw art’ and encompasses creations like graffiti and naïve art.

Jean Dubuffet rejected the dominance of academic training in fine art, which he termed "art culturel" or cultural art. In his view, "art brut," encompassing graffiti and creations by individuals like the mentally ill, prisoners, children, and primitive artists, represented unbridled expressions of vision and emotions, unconstrained by conventional norms. Dubuffet endeavoured to infuse these qualities into his own artwork, a practice sometimes associated with the term "art brut."

He amassed a substantial collection of art brut and, in 1948, established the Compagnie de l'Art Brut to foster its exploration. His collection is now housed in La Collection de l'Art Brut museum in Lausanne, Switzerland. Another notable collection, under the term "outsider art," is the Musgrave Kinley Outsider Art Collection, currently on loan to the Irish Museum of Modern Art in Dublin.

Art Brut

Art informel describes a variety of abstract painting styles from the 1940s and 1950s, emphasising improvisation and highly gestural techniques.

Art Informel emerged as a response to the atrocities and traumas of World War II. Artists associated with this movement rejected previous traditions of naturalistic, figurative, and geometric art. Instead, they embraced anti-compositional forms, gestural techniques, and a Surrealist-inspired spontaneity and irrationality. Coined by critic Michel Tapié, Art Informel served as an umbrella term for a range of styles and artists who valued individualism over adherence to artistic movements. It included European, American, Dutch, and Japanese artists, reflecting an international reaction to the global events of the time.

While Art Informel's diversity makes it challenging to define, and it was somewhat overshadowed by Abstract Expressionism, its various styles, including Art Brut, Lyrical Abstraction, Tachisme, Matter Painting, CoBrA, and Gutai, have had a lasting influence on subsequent art movements. These include Neo-Expressionist painters, Post-Minimalist sculptors, and the broader field of Performance Art.

Art Informel

‘Art intervention’ is art that’s created with the intention of interacting with an existing structure or situation.

Art intervention involves interacting with an existing artwork, audience, venue or space, or situation. This concept falls within the realm of conceptual art and is often a form of performance art. It is associated with various art movements, including the Letterist International, Situationist International, Viennese Actionists, the Dada movement, and Neo-Dadaists. More recently, intervention art has given rise to Guerrilla art, street art, and has been extensively employed by the Stuckists to challenge existing art and as a form of protest.

Intervention can also extend to art and actions that enter situations beyond the art world in an effort to modify existing conditions. For instance, intervention art may seek to alter economic or political situations or raise awareness about previously unknown conditions. Given that these objectives involve addressing and engaging with the public, some artists refer to their work as ‘public interventions’

Art Intervention

Art Nouveau is a global design style from the 1890s, known for its graceful, flowing lines and organic shapes inspired by natural plant forms.

Art Nouveau is an international artistic movement from the late 19th to early 20th centuries, aimed to unite various art forms and capture the intense sensory experiences of urban life. While it influenced painting and sculpture, its primary expressions were found in design, performance art, and architecture. Different regional variations bore names like Arte Nova, Glasgow Style, Stile Liberty, and Arte Modernista. The well-known version, Art Nouveau (meaning ‘New Art’ in French), thrived in France and Belgium, featuring sinuous and asymmetrical lines inspired by organic shapes.

Art Nouveau

Arte Povera (poor art) was an art movement in 1960s Italy that endeavoured to forge a fresh sculptural style using modest, common materials. 

In the late 1960s, young Italian artists sought to develop a fresh sculptural style using ordinary materials in a movement known as Arte Povera or ‘poor art’. Coined by Italian critic Germano Celant in 1967, this term encapsulated the work of these artists, as Celant identified a common revolutionary essence in their art, closely tied to the growing radical political climate in Italy. Through the use of basic, temporary materials like soil, cloth, and branches, Arte Povera artists aimed to defy and break free from the commodification of art.

Arte Povera

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a field of computer science and technology that focuses on creating systems and machines capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence. 

These tasks include problem-solving, learning, reasoning, understanding natural language, and recognizing patterns. AI systems use algorithms, data, and computational power to emulate human cognitive functions, enabling them to automate processes, make decisions, and adapt to changing circumstances.

Artificial Intelligence

Appropriation in art involves deliberate borrowing, replicating, and modifying of existing images, objects, and ideas as an artistic approach.

Appropriation has had a significant impact on the history of the arts – its origins can be traced back to the cubist collages and constructions of artists like Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, starting around 1912. They incorporated real objects like newspapers to represent themselves. This approach was further developed in the readymades of French artist Marcel Duchamp from 1915 – one of the most infamous examples is ‘Fountain’, a men's urinal signed, titled, and presented on a pedestal. 

Surrealism also extensively employed appropriation in collages and objects, exemplified by Salvador Dalí's Lobster Telephone. In the late 1950s, artists like Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg, as well as the pop art movement, prominently featured appropriated images and objects. 

Appropriation art raises questions about originality, authenticity, and authorship, fitting within the broader modernist tradition of art that challenges the nature and definition of art itself.

Artist Appropriation

An art commission involves asking for the creation of a piece, typically on behalf of someone else.

In art, a commission refers to the formal act of requesting the creation of a specific piece, usually done on behalf of another party. This practice extends across various domains, including private individuals, governmental bodies, and businesses. These types of commissions bear similarities to endorsements or sponsorships, as they involve a deliberate arrangement where an artist is entrusted with the task of crafting a work to meet particular specifications or desires. This collaborative process allows for the realisation of customised and bespoke artworks that cater to the unique visions and preferences of the commissioning party.

Artist Commission

An artist's proof (AP) is a special type of proof that is kept by the artist for their own personal use or for sale at a later date.

Artist's proofs are generally marked as 'AP' and are sometimes altered or hand-finished by the artist, making them more valuable to collectors. The number of artist's proofs is usually limited and separate from the main edition. They offer a glimpse into the artist's creative process and are often considered more valuable than regular edition prints.

Artist's Proof (AP)

‘Tone’ simply refers to the lightness or darkness of a colour. Each colour encompasses a wide range of tones.

In art, ‘tone’ relates to the varying levels of light and darkness employed to depict objects realistically or to craft an abstract composition. For instance, when working with pastels, artists might use coloured paper as a base, applying pigment in certain areas to define light and dark elements, while letting the bare paper serve as the middle tone.

Without tone, a painting may seem two-dimensional and lacking vitality. Yet, when an artist masters the use of tone, their work can become profoundly evocative, stirring powerful emotions. This concept gained prominence in the 19th century as painters turned their attention to nature, striving to capture the myriad tones present in landscapes.

Artistic Tone (AT)

The Ashcan School was an artistic movement in the U.S. during the late 19th to early 20th century, portraying everyday life, especially in poor areas.

The Ashcan School, distinguished by its gritty urban subject matter, dark palette, and expressive brushwork, was an informal group of artists based in New York City, inspired by painter Robert Henri. Embracing the worthiness of immigrant and working-class life as artistic subject matter, they advocated for art that depicted reality rather than elitist ideals. While their subject matter was revolutionary, their painting style had precedents in 17th-century Spanish and Dutch Realism, as well as 19th-century French painting.

Before the Ashcan School, American Impressionism, with its pleasing and idyllic scenes, dominated the art scene. However, the Ashcan School shifted the focus to modernity and artists' expressive reactions to their surroundings, particularly emphasising the dynamic energy of the people. Despite this achievement, the Ashcan School appeared retrograde with the arrival of European modernism in New York through the Armory Show in 1913.

Ashcan School

Assemblage is characterised by the arrangement of three-dimensional elements on a defined surface, often protruding from the substrate.

The practice of assemblage in art traces its roots back to Pablo Picasso's cubist constructions, which marked the inception of his three-dimensional works in 1912. One early example is his creation "Still Life" from 1914, composed of various wood scraps and a piece of tablecloth fringe, ingeniously glued together and then painted. Picasso continued to employ assemblage intermittently throughout his artistic journey.

In 1918, the Dada artist Kurt Schwitters pioneered the use of scavenged materials to craft collages and assemblages, coining the term "merz" for this technique. Assemblage also served as the foundation for numerous surrealist artworks. Inspired by the writings of psychologist Sigmund Freud on the realms of the unconscious and dreams, surrealist artists frequently amalgamated improbable combinations of found objects, giving rise to surprising and disconcerting sculptures.

Assemblage

Auto-destructive art, coined by Gustav Metzger in the 1960s, describes radical artworks where destruction is an integral part of the creation process.

Auto-Destructive Art (ADA), deeply influenced by World War II, emerged as a response to the widespread devastation and loss caused by the conflict. Unlike World War I, this war introduced new elements like aircraft and nuclear weapons, which inspired artists to explore novel techniques involving corrosion, stress, and heat. ADA aimed to represent the war's impact and casualties, prompting artists to approach societal issues differently. To delve into these matters within an industrialised society, Metzger encouraged collaboration between artists, scientists, and engineers.

Auto-Destructive Art

Automatism involves crafting artwork without deliberate thought, tapping into the reservoir of the unconscious mind.

The term ‘automatism’ is adopted from physiology, where it denotes bodily actions that occur without conscious control, such as breathing or sleepwalking. Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud employed techniques like free association and automatic drawing or writing to delve into the unconscious thoughts of his patients.

Automatism

An autonomous system is a system that uses a non-human decision maker. 

Autonomous systems have been used by humans for centuries to relinquish control, with systems of logic ranging from simple games to unfathomably complex algorithms. In the context of Generative Art, an autonomous is usually a non-human entity such as a computer program or machine. Here, the artist allows this entity to guide the final outcome – or artwork – in ways they cannot fully anticipate. Many of the results can be found on the blockchain.

Autonomous System

Avant-garde in art refers to new and experimental ideas and methods.

In the arts and literature, the avant-garde refers to a genre of art and experimental artists who create innovative and often ideologically challenging works, initially rejected by the artistic establishment of their era.

Movements such as Cubism, Fauvism, Dadaism, Expressionism, Surrealism, and more were all deemed radical during their respective periods, making them clear examples of avant-garde art.

Avant Garde

Bauhaus was a groundbreaking institution for art, architecture, and design, founded in 1919 by Walter Gropius in Weimar, Germany.

The Bauhaus teaching approach replaced the traditional teacher-student dynamic with a collaborative community of artists. Its goal was to reconnect art with everyday life, giving equal importance to architecture, performing arts, design, and applied arts alongside fine art. 

The name ‘Bauhaus’ combines the German words for ‘building’ (bau) and ‘house’ (haus), perhaps suggesting a collective effort to construct a new society. Prominent teachers included Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee, László Moholy-Nagy, and Josef Albers.

Bauhaus

The Ben Day process is a method in printing that creates shades of grey or different colours by using intricate ink patterns on paper.

A low-cost mechanical printing technique, developed in the late 19th century and named after its creator, illustrator and printer Benjamin Henry Day, Jr., employs small coloured dots (usually cyan, magenta, yellow, and black) placed at different intervals and blended to produce shading and various colours in images.

Ben-Day Dots

A biennial is a significant international art exhibition that takes place every two years.

Biennials are international platforms for contemporary art that occur every two years and are widely regarded as the most prominent -ennial events. In the globalised realm of contemporary art, more than 100 biennials in cities like São Paulo, Istanbul, Moscow, and Sydney vie for renowned curators and established artists. These events have evolved into sources of local pride, tourism, cultural influence, and revenue for the host cities.

The inaugural biennial event was the Venice Biennale in 1895, initially located in the Giardini, a public park. Today, the Giardini hosts thirty permanent national pavilions and numerous temporary structures. While European art initially dominated the early years, the exhibition has evolved to encompass contributions from countries across South America, Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.

Biennial

Biomorphic art, from 'bios' (life) and 'morphe' (form), relates to abstract shapes or images that resemble naturally occurring forms, such body parts.

'Biomorphism' is derived from the Greek words 'bio,' meaning life, and 'morphe,' meaning form. Importantly, it doesn't denote a 'life form' but rather signifies the inclination to manifest the appearance or characteristics of a living entity. Despite its scientific sound, the term was initially used to describe biomorphic art in the context of the Cubism and Abstract Art exhibition of 1936 at MoMA.

Biomorphic Art

Biomorphism comes from the Greek ‘bios’ (life) and ‘morphe’ (form), describing abstract shapes or images that remind people of living things. 

Biomorphism is an artistic design approach that draws inspiration from patterns and forms found in the natural world and living organisms. It involves emulating these organic elements to create aesthetically pleasing and harmonious designs. At its most radical, biomorphism seeks to integrate these naturally occurring shapes into functional objects or devices, seamlessly blending art and functionality. This design philosophy celebrates the beauty and efficiency of nature's creations and endeavours to infuse them into the man-made world.

Biomorphism

The Black Aesthetic is a cultural ideology that emerged in the United States during the 1960s, advocating for black separatism within the arts.

In 1968, the theorist Larry Neal asserted that Black arts were the "aesthetic and spiritual counterpart of the Black Power concept". He argued that young writers and artists should confront the contradictions stemming from the African-American experience of racism and marginalisation in the Western world.

At this pivotal moment in American politics, the development of a Black Aesthetic was deemed essential for shaping an African-American identity. Artists were urged to establish a new aesthetic that stood in opposition to the prevailing white Western norms, all while staying connected to their black communities. Early artworks, often in the form of murals, tackled social issues and aimed to mobilise local black communities. These works were vibrant, rich with symbolic imagery, and frequently featured members of the black community, ranging from Jazz musicians to politicians.

Artists associated with the Black Aesthetic include those from the visual arts workshop, such as Dana Chandler, Gary Rickson, William Walker, Jeff Donaldson, Eugene Wade, Jae Jarrell, Wadsworth Jarell, Barbara Jones-Hogu, and Gerald Williams, many of whom later formed AFRI-COBRA.

Black Aesthetic

The Black Arts Movement was an art movement led by African Americans, active in the 1960s and 1970s.

The Black Arts Movement, initiated by African American artists and thinkers in the 1960s and 1970s in the United States, emerged during a period when Black people worldwide were striving for freedom and equality. This movement aimed to empower Black individuals by focusing on cultural creations such as literature, theatre, and visual arts deeply rooted in Black history and identity. 

The art produced was designed for Black audiences and was intended to be readily available, both in terms of its subject matter and its accessibility through public murals and affordable prints.

Black Arts Movement

The blockchain is a distributed and decentralized digital ledger technology that securely records transactions across a network of computers.

It was originally developed as the underlying technology for cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum. In a blockchain, each transaction is verified and added to a chain of blocks, forming a transparent and tamper-resistant ledger. Blockchain technology has since found applications beyond cryptocurrencies, including supply chain management, voting systems and digital identity verification.

Blockchain

Body art is a form of art where the primary medium and focus is the human body, often that of the artist.

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